Proteolytic processing is an essential component of normal cell growth, differentiation, remodeling, and homeostasis. The cleavage of peptide bonds within cells is necessary for a variety of functions, including the maturation of precursor proteins to their active form, the removal of signal sequences from targeted proteins, the degradation of incorrectly folded proteins, and the controlled turnover of peptides within the cell. Proteases participate in apoptosis, inflammation, and in tissue remodeling during embryonic development, wound healing, and normal growth. They are necessary components of bacterial, parasitic, and viral invasion and replication within a host. Mammalian proteases have been identified and categorized based on active site structure, mechanism of action, and overall three-dimensional structure. (Beynon, R. J. and J. S. Bond (1994) Proteolytic Enzymes: A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y., pp. 1-5.)
The serine proteases (SPs) are a large family of proteolytic enzymes that include the digestive enzymes, trypsin and chymotrypsin; components of the complement and blood-clotting cascades; and enzymes that control the degradation and turnover of macromolecules of the extracellular matrix. SPs are named because of the presence of a serine residue found in the active catalytic site which forms a triad together with an aspartate and a histidine residue. SPs have a wide range of substrate specificities and can be subdivided into subfamilies on the basis of these specificities. The main sub-families are trypases, which cleave after arginine or lysine; aspases, which cleave after aspartate; chymases, which cleave after phenylalanine or leucine; metases which cleave after methionine; and serases, which cleave after serine.
Cysteine proteases are involved in diverse cellular processes ranging from the processing of precursor proteins to intracellular degradation. Mammalian cysteine proteases include lysosomal cathepsins and cytosolic calcium activated proteases, calpains. Cysteine proteases are produced by monocytes, macrophages and other cells of the immune system which migrate to sites of inflammation and secrete various molecules necessary for the repair of damaged tissue. These cells may overproduce the same molecules and cause tissue destruction in certain disorders. For example, in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, the secretion of the cysteine protease, cathepsin C, degrades collagen, laminin, elastin and other structural proteins found in the extracellular matrix of bones.
Carboxypeptidases A and B are the principal mammalian representatives of the metalloprotease family. Both are exopeptidases of similar structure and active sites. Carboxypeptidase A, like chymotrypsin, prefers C-terminal aromatic and aliphatic side chains of hydrophobic nature, whereas carboxypeptidase B is directed toward basic arginine and lysine residues. Active site components include zinc, with its three ligands of two glutamic acid and one histidine residues.
Many other proteolytic enzymes do not fit any of the major categories discussed above because their mechanisms of action and/or active sites have not been elucidated. These include the aminopeptidases and signal peptidases. Aminopeptidases catalyze the hydrolysis of amino acid residues from the amino terminus of peptide substrates. Bovine leucine aminopeptidase is a zinc metallo-enzyme that utilizes the sulfhydryl groups from at least three reactive cysteine residues at its active site in the binding of metal ions. (Cuypers, H. T. et al. (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257:7086-7091.)
Signal peptidases are a specialized class of proteases found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types that serve in the processing of signal peptides from certain proteins. Signal peptides are amino-terminal sequences on a protein which directs the protein from its ribosomal assembly site to a particular cellular or extracellular location. Once the protein has been exported, removal of the signal sequence by a signal peptidase and posttranslational processing, e.g., glycosylation or phosphorylation, activate the protein. Signal peptidases exist as multi-subunit complexes in both yeast and mammals.
Proteasome, an intracellular protease complex found in some bacteria and in all eukaryotic cells, plays an important role in cellular physiology. Proteasomes are responsible for the timely degradation of cellular proteins of all types and control proteins that function to activate or repress cellular processes such as transcription and cell cycle progression. (Ciechanover, A. (1994) Cell 79:13-21.) Proteasomes act on proteins which have been targeted for hydrolysis by the covalent attachment of a small protein called ubiquitin to lysine side chains of the protein. Ubiquitin-proteasome systems are implicated in the degradation of mitotic cyclic kinases, oncoproteins, tumor suppressor genes (p53), cell surface receptors associated with signal transduction, transcriptional regulators, and mutated or damaged proteins. (Ciechanover, supra.) Proteasomes are large (˜2000 kDa), multisubunit complexes composed of a central catalytic core containing a variety of proteases and terminal subunits that serve in substrate recognition and regulation of proteasome activity.
Protease inhibitors play a major role in the regulation of the activity and effect of proteases. They have been shown to control pathogenesis in animal models of proteolytic disorders. (Murphy, G. (1991) Agents Actions Suppl 35:69-76.) In particular, low levels of the cystatins, low molecular weight inhibitors of the cysteine proteases, seem to be correlated with malignant progression of tumors. (Calkins, C. et al (1995) Biol Biochem Hoppe Seyler 376:71-80.) The balance between levels of cysteine proteases and their inhibitors is also significant in the development of disorders. Specifically, increases in cysteine protease levels, when accompanied by reductions in inhibitor activity, are correlated with increased malignant properties of tumor cells and the pathology of arthritis and immunological diseases in humans.
The Kunitz family of serine protease inhibitors are characterized by one or more “Kunitz domains” containing a series of cysteine residues that are regularly spaced over approximately 50 amino acid residues and form three intrachain disulfide bonds. Members of this family include aprotinin, tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI-1 and TFPI-2), inter-α-trypsin inhibitor, and bikunin. (Marlor, C. W. et al. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272:12202-12208.) Members of this family are potent inhibitors (in the nanomolar range) against serine proleases such as kallikrein and plasmin. Aprotinin has clinical utility in reduction of perioperative blood loss.
The discovery of new human protease associated proteins and the polynucleotides encoding them satisfies a need in the art by providing new compositions which are useful in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cell proliferative and immune disorders.